Sexually Transmitted Diseases Essay Example

Sexually Transmitted Diseases Essay Sexually transmitted diseases, or STDs, are grabbing increasing attention given that the category includes AIDS, often labelled as the plague of our century. However, there are other important STDs that affect a large number of individuals and lead to disastrous consequences. These include Gonorrhea, Syphillis, Chlamydia, Herpes type II, Human Papilloma Virus (Warts), Hepatitis B, Trichimonis, Pubic Lice (CRABS). Different in origin, symptoms, treatment and outcomes, all these diseases share the way of transmission, where sexual intercourse is the primary vehicle.1. Prevalence of   STDs.The list of most important STDs has changed over time. Thus, syphilis was non-existent in pre-Columbian Europe. After Columbus’ trip to America, syphilis emerged as a devastating disease that used to plunder towns and villages, which gave scientists reasons to believe that it was brought over from the New World (Crosby, 1973, p. 124-126). In the 1960s the five most important STDs included gon orrhea, syphilis, granuloma inguinale, chancroid, and lymphogranuloma venereum (STDs: Yesterday and Today, 2004).According to the statistics publicised by the American Social Health Association, â€Å"more than half of all people will have an STD at some point in their lifetime† (ASHA, 2005). The same association estimates that one in two sexually active Americans gets infected with an STD by the age of 25, and one out of four teenagers per year will contract an STD. The compilation of reliable statistics is difficult since only a few sexually transmittd diseases including gonorrhea, syphilis, chlamydia, hepatitis A and B have to be reported to the health authorities when diagnosed. However, these numbers show the prevalence of SDTs in contemporary society and demonstrate that this is a serious health issue that has to be addressed with adequate measures on prevention and cure.STDs are typically caused by bacteria, parasites, and viruses. Physicians use antibiotics to treat S TDs cause by bacteria, but the problem is that the bacterium can develop a resistance to the medication, complicating treatment. Parasitic STDs are for the most part curable. The greatest challenge for humanity at this point is the viral STDs, including HIV/AIDS, as the virus tends to stay in the body for prolonged time periods without exhibiting any symptoms. Besides, â€Å"there are no known cures for viruses† (STDs: Yesterday and Today, 2004).2. Primary STDs.HIV/ AIDS (Acquired immune deficiency syndrome) usually tops the list of concerns related to sexually transmitted diseases to the uniformly lethal outcome and unavailability of the cure. A person develops AIDS after contracting HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) that decreases the potential of the immune system to respond to infections and cancers. As a result, the host dies of a certain infection or cancer, although HIV can reside in the body for years without developing into AIDS.Gonorrhea is a curable bacterial infe ction and one of the oldest sexually transmitted diseases. The disease is found in both men and women, although in women it is more likely to reside without causing symptoms. The bacterium affects many organs, including vagina, cervix, urethra, throat, and rectum.Syphilis, formerly known as the French disease, results from the contraction of â€Å"a bacterial spirochete that bores into the mucous membranes of the mouth or genitals† (STDs: Yesterday and Today, 2004). Syphilis develops in several stages, and it can take years before the disease reaches a stage in which it become incurable and leads to the death of the patient. In the initial stages it is treatable (NIAID, 2004). Syphilis begins with the appearance of a chancre, an ulcer that can appear both inside and outside of the body and thus often passes unnoticed by the patient, in particular due to its painless character. The secondary stage is characterised by the appearance of a highly infectious rash on the body. Afte r this the disease can transform into a latent process that will continue for years without causing any symptoms. Alternatively, syphilis can enter the tertiary stage which triggers â€Å"mental illness, blindness, other neurologic problems, heart disease, and death† (NIAID, 2004).Chlamydia is caused by bacterium that affects cervix, urethra, throat, and rectum. First reported in 1984, it â€Å"affects an estimated 35 million women annually† (STDs: Yesterday and Today, 2004). Chlamydia has a serious effect on fallopian tubes and can lead to infertility if not cured quickly. After treatment, Chlamydia can reside in the body for long periods of time.Herpes virus (Type II) is transmitted through sexual intercourse when the virus gets into the mucous on the genitals. As with most viruses, this one is incurable and can remain in the body for a lifetime without demonstrating symptoms (STDs: Yesterday and Today, 2004). According to the American Social Health Association, 90% of those infected with herpes do not know about their infection (ASHA, 2005). Alternatively, it can break into a rash or ulcer on the skin. Herpes virus is believed to pose little danger to the body and mostly leads to discomfort; however, contracting genital herpes simplifies HIV infection, and so couples in which one partner has this disease usually choose to use condoms to protect the other partner from risk.Human Papillomavirus (HSV) is another viral infection that can reside with the host without triggering symptoms. The most common symptom is warts, in particular genital warts. Recently, scientists established the connection between HSV and cervical and anal cancer, so contracting HSV raises the risk of cervical cancer in women. Among 80 and 100 strains of the virus, there are differing degrees of risk of causing cancer.Hepatitis B, like other varieties of hepatitis (Types A, C, D) leads to the inflammation of the liver, but differs from other types since it is contracted thro ugh sexual intercourse in 30% of the cases (STDs: Yesterday and Today, 2004). A person can recover from hepatitis without serious damage to health, although in many cases the disease can change into a chronic form or lead to a fatal outcome due to liver failure.3. STDs: Impact on Health.Many STDs, although not leading to fatal outcomes on their own, can lead to complications that will result in either death of the patient or permanent depression of a certain bodily function such as reproduction. Thus, untreated gonorrhoea in women can result in a PID, pelvic infectious disease, especially if left untreated for many years. PID results in the formation of scars in the fallopian tubes that can block the passage of the fertilized egg into the uterus. The consequence can be a tubal (ectopic) pregnancy in which the embryo implants in the tube, occasionally causing a miscarriage or even resulting in a fatal outcome. In men, gonorrhoea results in epididymitis, affecting the testicles, and/o r inflammation of the prostate gland.Similar effects appear in both men and women as a result of other STDs. PID is a common condition emerging in consequence of STD and can often lead to infertility. Untreated, the infection leads to the blockage of the fallopian tubes precluding the fertilization of the egg. Half of PID cases are attributed to Chlamydia (NIAID, 2004). Often this process is not accompanied with any symptoms or inconvenience, and thus the condition progresses unnoticed.Any other STD increases the risk of contracting HIV. For this reason, prevention and treatment of other STDs is important part of the efforts to reduce the spread of AIDS. Besides, measures that are part of the prevention campaigns against HIV, such as mutual monogamy (â€Å"having sex with only one, uninfected partner who only has sex with you†), condom use and regular check-ups are helpful against HIV as well as against other sexually transmitted diseases.4. Diagnosing and Prevention of STDs. Diagnosing and prevention of these dangerous diseases is an important issue in contemporary American society where high cost of medical services can isolate the uninsured portion of the population from regular check-ups necessary in order to prevent the development of the disease. The low level of concern among medical professionals is another problem. A national survey of US doctors indicated that less than one-third of physicians regularly checked patients for STDs (St Lawrence J.S. et al., 2002, p.1784). Screening for Chlamydia, a disease that can cause lasting damage to a woman’s reproductive system leading to infertility, is at a disappointingly low level, since â€Å"in 2003 only 30% of women 25 and under with commercial health care plans and 45% in Medicaid plans were screened for Chlamydia† (ASHA, 2005). Since early detection of the disease is often a decisive factor that determines the success of treatment, any program aiming to increase the effectiveness of a n anti-STD campaign has to concentrate on stepping up measures for early diagnosis of sexually transmitted diseases. As stated before, regular check-ups can, for example, exclude deaths from syphilis that is treatable in early stages.Another part of efforts in combating STDs is to embark on an extensive prevention program. A study conducted by Alexander McKay in Canada in 2000 focused on the research of effective interventions methods aimed at prevention of HIV and other STDs. His research indicates favourable outcomes of behavioral interventions with â€Å"adolescents, street youth, STI clinic patients, women, heterosexually active men, men who have sex with men, and communities† (McKay, 2000, p. 95). The study aims at the development of a cost-effective method of STD prevention that will generate results in a cost-efficient manner. A successful prevention strategy, according to McKay has to take into consideration cultural factors and be conducted in a culturally appropriat e fashion. Activists are encouraged to draw on the involvement of peer educators and community opinion leaders, putting sizeable effort into the promotion of condoms and safe sex. Campaigning has to evolve on both communal and individual planes, targeting broad masses of people as well as creating individual sexual health plans.Another important area of fight against STDs is the research directed at the invention of new medications against these infections, as well as vaccines and diagnosis methods. Thus, a projected supported by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) targets the development of new diagnosis methods that will allow doctors to pinpoint with greater precision the stage of the disease (NIAID, 2004). Molecular biologists are investigating various parts of the spirochete bacterium in order to prepare a vaccine that will provide for more efficient prevetion of this STD. Researchers are also trying to replace the current common diagnostic test fo r syphilis that requires a blood sample with one that will examine saliva or urine.   The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases’ research on gonorrhoea focuses on several important issues, namely, â€Å"how this bacterium attaches to host cells†, â€Å"how it gets inside cells†, â€Å"gonococcal surface structures and how they can change†, and â€Å"human response to infection by gonococci† (NIAID, 2004). Dramatic improvements in treatment and diagnosis of STDs will be instrumental in stemming the spread of these diseases.ConclusionSTDs are a pervasive phenomenon in modern-day society that has come to the fore of public attention primarily due to HIV/AIDS. Although AIDS is by far the deadliest STD at this point, the impact of other infections should not be overshadowed by the AIDS epidemic, since STDs affect a large proportion of population and carry permanent long-term risks due to their frequently latent character. These infecti ons, caused by bacteria, viruses, and parasites, can lead to infertility, ectopic pregnancies and lethal outcomes. That is why efforts aimed at the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of STDs acquire increasing importance.

Social vs. Societal

Social vs. Societal Social vs. Societal Social vs. Societal By Mark Nichol What’s the difference between social and societal? Not much, but enough that you may become the victim of social stigma if you ignore subtle societal signals. Societal is the pedantic alternative to social. They both mean â€Å"pertaining to society,† but as the latter word, first attested in the Middle Ages, was increasingly used in the modern era to refer to interpersonal contact rather than in the context of complex forces within human populations, societal appeared in the latter part of the nineteenth century as a more serious, scholarly alternative. It is mostly seen in such usage and is otherwise considered pretentious. Even now, social is more likely to appear in phrases referring to individuals, not groups, such as â€Å"social disposition,† â€Å"social engagement,† and â€Å"social life.† Societal, on the other hand, is employed in contexts like â€Å"societal pressure to conform,† though social still has the same import in usage such as â€Å"social institutions,† which refers to widespread traditions, not venues where people hang out. Standing phrases that include social also include â€Å"social climber,† referring to a person who tries to rise above his or her station in life; â€Å"social disease,† a euphemism for â€Å"venereal disease† (one spread through sexual contact), or any disease whose distribution is related to socioeconomic factors; and â€Å"social drinker,† which denotes a regular imbiber of alcoholic beverages whose indulgence is not considered excessive. The most ubiquitous such phrase of the last decade or so, however, is â€Å"social network(ing),† a case of an unfortunate usurpation of a useful term for a diluted sense: In most contexts, a social network is a virtual web of friends, acquaintances, and colleagues or professional contacts, enabled by recent technological innovations, that is widely seen as contributing to a more expansive yet much more superficial outlook on interpersonal communication and interaction than was prevalent in the past. (Yet the telephone, the telegram, and other once innovative devices were in their day similarly derided for weakening the social contract.) More provocative phrases are â€Å"social Darwinism,† the name for the theory that some social groups are biologically superior to others, and â€Å"social engineering,† which has two senses: large-scale manipulation or influencing of society, or deceptive collection of confidential personal information. The ancestor of both words is socius, Latin for â€Å"accomplice,† â€Å"ally,† or â€Å"companion.† Other terms that stem from this parentage include sociology, which primarily means â€Å"the study of aspects of large groups of people† the more far-reaching equivalent of psychology, which focuses on the behavior of individuals and socialite, a mildly pejorative term for a person with prominent status in society, usually as a result of abundant wealth. Antisocial, meanwhile, denotes behavior averse or hostile to society, and asocial refers to someone who avoids engaging in society. Socialism is a term coined in the mid-nineteenth century to apply to sometimes competing ideas of governance, often similar to and often confused with those of communism, in which the state controls production and distribution of goods and services. A related term is association, referring to networks of relationships. Interestingly, this term is the origin of a word for the globally popular sport known in most of the world as football (or a transliteration such as fussball or futbol) but in the United States called soccer: Originally, this game, to distinguish it from rugby football (now usually called simply rugby), was termed â€Å"association football.† Slang usage shortened this term to assoc and later soccer. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:100 Whimsical WordsProved vs. ProvenMankind vs. Humankind

Crusade

Crusade Crusade Crusade By Maeve Maddox The word crusade, used as both noun and verb, derives from a Latin verb meaning â€Å"to mark with a cross.† Middle English adopted the Old French form, croisee. When the OF spelling shifted to croisade, English speakers started spelling it that way too. Finally, in the 18th century, the spelling was Anglicized to crusade. The Crusades were European-led wars that began in the 11th century with the intention of recapturing Jerusalem and other places in the Holy Land that had been conquered by Muslims in the 7th century, seven years after the death of Muhammad. The last attempt by a European king to recover the Christian sites was in 1272. The earliest OED citation for croisade in reference to these wars is dated 1557. In the 18th century, crusade acquired a figurative meaning separate from the idea of a religious war. The noun came to mean â€Å"an aggressive movement against something perceived as a public evil.† The first documentation of this use occurs in 1786 in the writings of Thomas Jefferson: â€Å"Preach, my dear Sir, a crusade against ignorance.† For more than 200 years, crusade has served English speakers as a useful word to signify any kind of zealous support or opposition carried on in the name of the public good, for example: Rep. Claude Pepper, who crusaded for Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal in the 1930s and was still championing the rights of the elderly a half-century later, died today at 88.   For years, I’ve been on a crusade to help people boost their productivity by strengthening their writing so they can avoid the problems that come with sending unclear messages. Klonsky is talking about the zealots, backed by multimillionaires, who are crusading against teachers unions as they claim to fight for the reform of public education. Kentucky has now, by reason of this legislation, decided to become educated - and we have embarked on a crusade for that purpose. Public School Crusaders Stake Out Rival Camps in Austin Sunday Express launches crusade for better mental health In the present political climate, the figurative use of crusade seems to be coming to an end as it joins others on the list of politically incorrect words: Campus Crusade Changes Name to Cru Ministry leaders worry that the word â€Å"crusade† has too many negative associations. President Bushs reference to a crusade against terrorism, which passed almost unnoticed by Americans, rang alarm bells in Europe.    Crusade is already coming in for criticism in some writing guides. This is from a UK university writing guide: Example 1: Crusade against crime Example 2: Campaign against crime The word ‘crusade’ has connotations of a battle and is more aggressive in tone than the word ‘campaign’. ‘Campaign’ implies a more considered approach. A style manual for Christian writers offers this advice: The terms  crusade  and crusades  are legitimate  words  in most contexts, although they should be  avoided  when used figuratively for Christian evangelism, modern military campaigns, or any effort to promote beliefs or values cross-culturally. As Western government spokesmen and journalists take care to avoid the English word crusade, the Arabic borrowing jihad comes to mind. Like crusade in English, jihad has two meanings in its language of origin: â€Å"a holy war against unbelievers† and â€Å"a struggle or effort to do good.† Here are some alternatives for politically correct writers who wish to phase out crusade in the figurative sense: crusade (noun): campaign drive push movement effort struggle offensive crusade (verb): work strive struggle fight agitate lobby champion promote Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:When to Capitalize Animal and Plant Names8 Writing Tips for BeginnersEmpathic or Empathetic?

Drought and water supply Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Drought and water supply - Research Paper Example Although drought has several causes and is associated with numerous negative consequences, it can be properly managed using various strategies. Drought has a long history that can be traced as far back as the biblical times of Joseph. It is one of the earliest climatic events that are documented. Presently it is associated with the Epic of Gilgamesh and later the exodus of Israelites from Egypt. It has been there since the times of early man, in Africa and the rest of the world. In the modern society, it is possible for people to mitigate the impacts of drought through crop rotation and irrigation. If people fail to develop and implement mitigation strategies, drought and bad water supply they will incur grave costs. The worst droughts that have been experienced in the world are the droughts of 1980s and 1990s. The most severe and historical drought was experienced in the basin of river Simeto. Climate is what determines water supply. Temperatures of the air determine the level of water demand, while precipitation is the only source of renewing water. If people can clearly understand past climatic conditions, they can predict future conditions and hence adapt and limit the level of hardship faced during drought. It is evident that drought comes in a certain pattern that repeats itself seasonally, annually and inter-annually. Estimates by the United Nations indicate that one third of the world’s population is affected by water shortages (United Nations, 23). The UN states that about 1.1 billion people lack safe water for drinking and those without enough water for sanitation stand at 2.6 billion (United Nations, 23). Consequently, deaths and diseases have increased due to the use of contaminated water. Children from developing countries are the most affected with 3,900 of them dying everyday from diarrhea and insufficient or bad water related

Natural Resources and Environmental Economics Essay - 2

Natural Resources and Environmental Economics - Essay Example This essay has been aimed at showing the possibility for the economic instruments to work effectively for the minimization of the pesticide water pollution on the local level. While the legal threshold of pesticide residues is equal to 0.1 ÃŽ ¼g/l, 5 to 10% of waters in Belgium, Denmark, the UK and France are found to be contaminated with the levels of pesticides exceeding these limits. As 65% of Europeans use ground waters for drinking, the seriousness of the problem increases and needs expensive treatment. The major impact that is mentioned in the essay is made on the local communities which mostly rely on groundwater supplies. Though there have been shown the disadvantages in the previous policies, the general direction in which the authorities work is correct. There have been shown the possible strategies and recommendations to make this work even more effective. It is suggested by the researcher of the essay that the future work in the area of pesticide pollution is concentrated on the development of the new economic instruments in combination with ecological knowledge. It will also be useful to account the international experience, though any policy should first of all be implemented at the local level. The advantage of the local addressing the issue is in the fact that local authorities are more able to control each polluter separately, which ultimately makes the whole work in the sphere of environment protection at the state level more effective and produces better results.

Parliamentary Sovereignty Essay Example for Free

Parliamentary Sovereignty Essay With reference to relevant domestic case law outline the â€Å"mechanisms† adopted by the British Courts to maintain the Doctrine of Parliamentary Sovereignty in the context of applying European Law. Particular reference should be made to the cases of Bulmer v Bollinger and Factortame. Parliamentary sovereignty is a fundamental principle in the constitution of the United Kingdom. It is where the Parliament is the supreme legal authority, which has the power to create or end any law. Generally, the courts cannot overrule its legislation and no Parliament can pass a law that a future Parliament cannot change. In the British constitution, a statute is generally regarded as the highest form of the law, therefore Parliament is seen as the sovereign law maker. However the doctrine of Parliamentary sovereignty has been altered and limited by the UK decision to become a member of the European Community in 1973 when the European Communities Act 1972 came into force. Parliament must now legislate consistently with European Community Law. The terms of the European treaties as interpreted by the European Court of Justice require member states to limit their sovereignty, by Parliament giving direct effect and primacy to EU Law. The European Court of Justice states that European Community Law should be enforceable in the courts of member states and that EU law prevails domestic law of member state, which includes the United Kingdom. The ECJ, as the judicial institution of the Community, is the backbone of that system of safeguards. It is responsible for interpreting questions of EC law and provision is made in the Treaty for references to the ECJ by national courts. Decisions of the ECJ, upon a reference, are reached by majority vote and are binding on all domestic courts of all Member States. Under Article 234 the ECJ has achieved the principle of supremacy and its uniform application in all Member States when Community law may be in conflict with domestic legislation. The ECH, as the guardian of legality and instrument of cohesion within the Community, has from the start been in a strong position to define the status of Community law and to gibe it precedence when in conflict with the national legal systems of the various Member states. The first case where the Court made a statement on the nature of European law is the famous case of Van Gend en Loos dealing with the principle of direct effect of EC Treaty provisions and the degree to which individuals can rely on such terms to hallenge measures of national law. It was in a second important case, two years later, however, that the ECJ expanded on its constitutional theory of the Community, declaring again that the states had created a sovereign Community by limiting their own sovereign rights. The case was Costa v Enel, the Court basically decided that community law had supremacy over national law. To this day the judgement is the bedrock of the importance of Community law in all Member States of the European Union. Without this decision Community law would have remained merely international law. Not until the doctrine of supremacy did Community law become truly ‘supranational’ as intended in the European treaties. It was in Bulmer v Bollinger that Lord Denning stated: â€Å"The Treaty of Rome is like an incoming tide. It flows into the estuaries and up the rivers. It cannot be held back. † The early generous and realistic approach was seen in the case of Macarthys v Smith (1981) where Lord Denning discussed the feature between mere inconsistencies and deliberate derogation. Where the incompatibility is inadvertent, he suggested that English Courts should apply EC law, on the assumption that Parliament anticipated to perform its treaty obligations. On the other hand, where the incompatibility was deliberate, he was of the belief that English law should triumph. In this case Lord Denning asserted that â€Å"it has priority. It is not supplanting English law. It is part of our law which overrides any other part which is inconsistent with it. † However, it was not until the Factortame litigation that the true implication on parliamentary sovereignty became noticeable. The cases of R v Secretary of State for Transport Ex Parte Factortame (1989), changed Lord Dennings principle. In this case the UK courts applied for an Article 177 reference. Due to the extensive time it take to respond to reference, the UK applied for an additional ruling asking if they could in the meantime still apply the Act as it conflicted with Articles 52 and 221 of the Treaty of Rome. The ECJ ordered the UK to temporarily suspend the 1988 Act, which the UK parliament had not done before. Therefore, this relentlessly undermined the supremacy of the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty.

The Diver :: essays research papers

â€Å"The Diver† Robert Currie’s â€Å"The Diver†, on the surface, recounts a diver’s descent and ascent into a river as onlookers eagerly anticipate his fate. Beneath the surface, this poem is actually very spiritual. The diver’s descent into the water, and his arising from the water, can be compared to the crucifixion of Jesus. Through the masterful use of imagery and Biblical comparisons, Currie depicts the message that rebirth and hope can captivate and revitalize our spirits. An essential key to the theme of â€Å"The Diver† is through the subtle yet prevailing use of Biblical references. From the very beginning of Currie’s poem, a simile is used when describing the â€Å"bridge like a Roman fort†. This helps to set the tone that something important is about to happen and also provides a Biblical base to the structure of the poem. Lines four to six describe the man’s journey up towards the bridge. This journey can be compared to Jesus’ struggle towards the top of the hill where he was crucified. Perhaps this man was also carrying a â€Å"load on his shoulders†, so to speak. The poem becomes even more Biblical as â€Å"others bet upon his chance†, much like Jesus’ own fate. As the diver prepares for the inevitable, his situation has Biblical meaning. â€Å"At the summit of the span he rose/ his arms outstretched/ flung a cross against the sun†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢, are perhaps three of the most powerful lin es in the poem. These lines are followed by much anticipation from the crowd below. The dive symbolizes the end of something, which is also supported when â€Å"The river circling away/ grew silent as held breath/ still as death†. These lines make is seem as though everything, and everyone, even the river, are â€Å"holding their breath† in anticipation of the outcome of the dive. Then, starting at line twenty-one, the rebirth begins, as, â€Å"from unknown depths/ his head broke the water/ shook out a crown of sunlit spray. There is a strong Biblical presence in the comparisons used in this poem, which help to support the theme of hope and rebirth, while providing powerful imagery. A vital element of Currie’s â€Å"The Diver† is the strong presence of imagery, which helps to sustain the theme of captivating hope. The image of â€Å"the solitary figure† provokes a strong sense of despair, followed by his painful struggle â€Å"up the arch†. The images give the impression that the events are unfolding in a captivating slow-motion means.